Cancer Terminologies

ANAPLASTIC :  It refers to those tumours cells that are completely undifferentiated and bear no resemblance to cells of tissues of their origin.


HYPERPLASIA:  It refers to an increase in the number of normal cells ina normal arrangement ina tisue or organ, usually cells in a normal arrangement in a tissue ot organ, usually lead to an increase in the size or part and an increase in functional activity

METAPLASIA:  It refers to the replacement of one type of fully differentiated cell by another fully differentiated cell in an other part of the body where the second cell type does not normally occur

DYSPLASIA:   It refers to an alteration in the size, shape and organization of differentiated cells; cells lose their regularity and show variability in size and shape, usually in response to an irritant; cells may revert to normal when the irritant is removed, but may transform to neoplasia

METASTASIS:  It refers to the ability of neoplastic cells to spread from the original site of tumour to distant organs, spreading as the same cell type as the original neoplastic tissue

CARCINOMA:  It refers to a form of cancer that is composed of epithelial cells that tend to infiltrate surrounding tissues and may eventually spread to distant sites.

ONCOGENES:   It refers to cancer genes that are altered versions of normal genes

PROTO-ONCOGENES:   It refers to repressed oncongenes existing in normal which can be activated by many different factors and cause the host cell to become malignant

TUMOUR:  It refers to usually synonymous with neoplasm

Bible Quotes Of Hope For Cancer Patients

Psalms 9:18
But the needy will not always be forgotten, nor the hope of the afflicted ever perish.

Psalms 31:24
Be strong and take heart, all you who hope in the LORD.

Psalms 33:18
But the eyes of the LORD are on those who fear him, on those whose hope is in his unfailing love,

Psalms 39:7
"But now, Lord, what do I look for? My hope is in you.

Psalms 43:5
Why are you downcast, O my soul? Why so disturbed within me? Put your hope in God, for I will yet praise him, my Savior and my God.

Psalms 71:5
For you have been my hope, O Sovereign LORD, my confidence since my youth.

Psalms 119:74
May those who fear you rejoice when they see me, for I have put my hope in your word.

Psalms 119:130:7
O Israel, put your hope in the LORD, for with the LORD is unfailing love and with him is full redemption.

Proverbs 10:28
The prospect of the righteous is joy, but the hopes of the wicked come to nothing.

Proverbs 13:12
Hope deferred makes the heart sick, but a longing fulfilled is a tree of life.

Proverbs 14:32
When calamity comes, the wicked are brought down, but even in death the righteous have a refuge.

Proverbs 23:18
There is surely a future hope for you, and your hope will not be cut off.

Proverbs 24:14
Know also that wisdom is sweet to your soul; if you find it, there is a future hope for you, and your hope will not be cut off.

Jeremiah 17:7
"But blessed is the man who trusts in the LORD, whose confidence is in him.

Acts 23:6
Then Paul, knowing that some of them were Sadducees and the others Pharisees, called out in the Sanhedrin, "My brothers, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee. I stand on trial because of my hope in the resurrection of the dead."

Romans 4:18
Against all hope, Abraham in hope believed and so became the father of many nations, just as it had been said to him, "So shall your offspring be."

Romans 5:1-5
Therefore, since we have been justified through faith, we[a]have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ through whom we have gained access by faith into this grace in which we now stand. And we rejoice in the hope of the glory of God. Not only so, but we also rejoice in our sufferings, because we know that suffering produces perseverance; perseverance, character; and character, hope. And hope does not disappoint us, because God has poured out his love into our hearts by the Holy Spirit, whom he has given us.

Romans 12:12
Be joyful in hope, patient in affliction, faithful in prayer.

Romans 15:4
For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us, so that through endurance and the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.

1 Corinthians 13:13
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.

2 Corinthians 3:10-12
For what was glorious has no glory now in comparison with the surpassing glory. And if what was fading away came with glory, how much greater is the glory of that which lasts! Therefore, since we have such a hope, we are very bold.

Ephesians 1:18
I pray also that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened in order that you may know the hope to which he has called you, the riches of his glorious inheritance in the saints,

Ephesians 4:1-5
As a prisoner for the Lord, then, I urge you to live a life worthy of the calling you have received. Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love. Make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace. There is one body and one Spirit—just as you were called to one hope when you were called— one Lord, one faith, one baptism

Colossians 1:3-5
We always thank God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, when we pray for you, because we have heard of your faith in Christ Jesus and of the love you have for all the saints— the faith and love that spring from the hope that is stored up for you in heaven and that you have already heard about in the word of truth, the gospel

Colossians 1:26-27
the mystery that has been kept hidden for ages and generations, but is now disclosed to the saints. To them God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory.

1 Thessalonians 1:3
We continually remember before our God and Father your work produced by faith, your labor prompted by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 Thessalonians 5:8
But since we belong to the day, let us be self-controlled, putting on faith and love as a breastplate, and the hope of salvation as a helmet.

Titus 2:11-14
For the grace of God that brings salvation has appeared to all men. It teaches us to say "No" to ungodliness and worldly passions, and to live self-controlled, upright and godly lives in this present age, while we wait for the blessed hope—the glorious appearing of our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ, who gave himself for us to redeem us from all wickedness and to purify for himself a people that are his very own, eager to do what is good.

Titus 3:3-7
At one time we too were foolish, disobedient, deceived and enslaved by all kinds of passions and pleasures. We lived in malice and envy, being hated and hating one another. But when the kindness and love of God our Savior appeared, he saved us, not because of righteous things we had done, but because of his mercy. He saved us through the washing of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit, whom he poured out on us generously through Jesus Christ our Savior, so that, having been justified by his grace, we might become heirs having the hope of eternal life.

Hebrews 3:6
But Christ is faithful as a son over God's house. And we are his house, if we hold on to our courage and the hope of which we boast.

Hebrews 6:10-11
God is not unjust; he will not forget your work and the love you have shown him as you have helped his people and continue to help them. We want each of you to show this same diligence to the very end, in order to make your hope sure.

Hebrews 11:1
Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see.

1 Peter 1:3
Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! In his great mercy he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead,

1 Peter 1:21
Through him you believe in God, who raised him from the dead and glorified him, and so your faith and hope are in God.

1 Peter 3:15
But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect,

1 John 3:3
How great is the love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God! And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him. Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when he appears,[a]we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is. Everyone who has this hope in him purifies himself, just as he is pure.

1 Peter 3:15
But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect,
Joshua - Bible Quotes
And, behold, this day I am going the way of all the earth: and ye know in all your hearts and in all your souls, that not one thing hath failed of all the good things which the LORD your God spake concerning you; all are come to pass unto you, and not one thing hath failed thereof.Joshua 23:14
Caleb - A Great Quotation
And now, behold, the LORD hath kept me alive, as he said, these forty and five years, even since the LORD spake this word unto Moses, while the children of Israel wandered in the wilderness: and now, lo, I am this day fourscore and five years old. As yet I am as strong this day as I was in the day that Moses sent me: as my strength was then, even so is my strength now, for war, both to go out, and to come in.Joshua 14:10-11
Joshua - A Memorable Bible Quote
Joshua 24:15 And if it seem evil unto you to serve the LORD, choose you this day whom ye will serve; whether the gods which your fathers served that were on the other side of the flood, or the gods of the Amorites, in whose land ye dwell: but as for me and my house, we will serve the LORD.
Ruth - A Life Changing Quote
Ruth 1:16 & 17 Intreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after thee: for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God: Where thou diest, will I die, and there will I be buried: the LORD do so to me, and more also, if ought but death part thee and me.
Esther - An Intercessors Quote
Esther 4:16 Go, gather together all the Jews that are present in Shushan, and fast ye for me, and neither eat nor drink three days, night or day: I also and my maidens will fast likewise; and so will I go in unto the king, which is not according to the law: and if I perish, I perish.

Curing Cancer Naturally

Treating Cancer Naturally
Although it's easier to prevent cancer than to reverse it once it has taken hold, it is nevertheless reversible with holistic therapies that address imbalances of the body, mind and spirit. This is not an opinion; it is a statement of fact that's based on this author's first-hand experience.
A comprehensive approach to healing cancer includes at least the following
eight factors:
1. Proper nutrition and clean water
Proper nutrition and pure filtered water is critical to a successful anti-cancer
strategy. Diet alone can make or break the effectiveness of any cancer treatment
and is therefore the most important strategic point. Refined sugar feeds and strengthens cancer cells and should be the first substance to be eliminated. Sugar substitutes, refined flour and trans fatty acids damage the body and numerous studies link them to cancer. Dairy and all mucus-forming foods should also be avoided (1). Processed foods, carbonated beverages, coffee, alcohol, chlorine and fluoride fall into the category of foods and substances that interfere with healing and may fuel the cancer's growth. Conversely, a diet of nutrient-rich foods will enhance all levels of the healing process.
Herbs, fruits and vegetables have properties that protect against and inhibit the proliferation of cancer while strengthening, cleansing and repairing the body (2). These include green leafy vegetables, cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, etc.), sea vegetables, fruits (especially berries and dark grapes with seeds and skins), garlic, ginger, turmeric and green tea, among many others. A diet containing an abundance of organic plant foods provides layers of nutritional protection.
Concentrated fats from flax oil and olive oil may be used unheated while coconut oil
can be used for cooking. Although these healthy oils as well as fats from whole foods
such as avocados, nuts and seeds provide the essential fatty acids necessary for
oxygenation of cells (3), they should nevertheless be kept to a minimum
(approximately 15% of diet) since fat slows digestion and in large quantities may
accelerate tumor growth (4). Once the cancer is stabilized this restriction may be
relaxed.
Animal protein should be eliminated. Beans and legumes are an excellent source of
fiber and many important nutrients and may be consumed in moderation.
While whole grains also contain fiber and nutrients, there is disagreement among
experts as to their place in a healing diet. Due in part to their sugar and gluten
content, and the digestive load they place on the body already burdened by cancer,
they should be eliminated or restricted to gluten-free varieties, like quinoa, at least
until the condition is stable. Likewise, natural sweeteners such as honey and maple
syrup should also be restricted while cancer remains active. The herb stevia is a safe
sweetener.
The cancer survivor should aim for a diet that is at least 80% raw.
2. Detoxification
Effective healing requires the removal of accumulated toxins and metabolic wastes.
Being mindful to eliminate or minimize the ingestion of processed foods, substances,
and environmental toxins that inhibit the healing process is of primary importance.
It's also beneficial to begin a healing regimen with a cleanse of the kidneys, liver and
colon to remove stored toxins. There are many effective cleansing formulas and
procedures that can be found at health food stores, the internet, or through a holistic
healer. One of the most effective healing agents available is organic sulfur crystals.
3. Immune building
The immune system is our body's natural defense against harmful substances and
abnormal cell development. Any cell within the body can mutate in response to
negative stressors, but a healthy immune system will stop its growth and defend
against an uncontrollable malignancy. There are various groups of white blood cells
that possess an innate intelligence for healing.
Strategies to strengthen and build these natural
defenses to prevent or treat cancer include a diet rich in nutrient-dense foods and
supplementation. Chlorella, mushroom extracts, aloe vera, and milk thistle are just a
few of the many supplements that strengthen the body's natural defenses.
4. Oxygen therapy
The more toxic the body, the less oxygen is delivered to cells. Oxygen starvation at
the cellular level leads to disease; in fact, it's an undisputed fact that cancer cells
cease to grow when blood and tissues are sufficiently oxygenated (3). There are
many ways to oxygenate the body. First and foremost are organic sulfur crystals.
Next, a highly alkaline diet (80% raw).
5. Natural chemotherapies
There are many natural, non-toxic chemotherapies that directly or indirectly kill
malignancies. None of them are stand-alone treatments however, and should be
considered as one component of a comprehensive protocol. Amygdalin, also known
as laetrile or vitamin B17, selectively targets and destroys cancer cells while healthy
cells remain unharmed. The substance is naturally occurring in many plant foods,
including apple seeds, bitter almonds and apricot pits, and may also be obtained
through oral supplements or administered intravenously.
6. Lifestyle changes: adequate sleep, sunlight & exercise
Deep, restful sleep is an important part of an effective healing strategy. During sleep
our bodies undergo the processes of rebuilding, detoxifying and healing. The liver
works during the deepest level of sleep, the delta level, to break down and eliminate
carcinogens. Additionally, sleeping in complete darkness contributes to healthy levels
of melatonin, a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that promotes restful sleep
(6). Eating three hours before sleep, especially protein, should be avoided since it
diverts the body's healing efforts to digestion. The value of adequate sleep should
not be overlooked because without it our healing efforts will be compromised.
Other lifestyle changes include sunlight exposure and daily exercise. Research links
lack of sunlight to certain cancers and vitamin D from sunlight has been shown to
shrink tumors (7, 8). Adequate exposure during the early morning or late afternoon
hours is the safest way to obtain the restorative benefits of sunlight. The darker
one's pigmentation, the more exposure is necessary. Avoid over-exposure during the
hottest part of the day as sunburns can damage skin and promote cancer.
7. A positive attitude
Developing a positive attitude will reduce psychological stress and profoundly aid the
healing process. A cancer survivor can achieve this in part by becoming proactive
through researching alternative options. This is an empowering strategy and gives
one a firm sense of control. There are innumerable books and websites that outline
alternative cancer therapies.
8. Spiritual cleansing
Spirituality is the third aspect of the holistic paradigm and refers to our sense of
peace. reversing karmic trends and turning to God. It involves settling unresolved
conflicts, forgiving and asking forgiveness, liberating toxic emotions such as anger,
bitterness, hatred, resentment, regret, and fear, while embracing our capacity for
love, compassion and joy. Spiritual cleansing is a process that can be achieved
through various means, including mantra meditation (please feel free to contact me
for more information about this), and prayer.

These strategies should be embraced by the cancer survivor as permanent lifestyle
changes. Occasional diversions are to be expected, but one should try not to lose
focus. Although it may at times be difficult to remain faithful to the holistic protocol,
its benefits over conventional treatments are beyond measure. Furthermore, the
regimen becomes increasingly rewarding once healing begins and measurable results
are achieved. The holistic protocol creates a physical, emotional and spiritual
environment that simply will not support cancer.

BMI(Body Mass Index)

BMI
Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat based on height and weight that applies to both adult  men and women.


BMI Categories:

• Underweight = <18.5
• Normal weight = 18.5-24.9
• Overweight = 25-29.9
• Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater

Calculate Your BMI(Body Mass Index)






Body Mass Index (BMI) Calculator

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Mesothelioma

Mesothelioma, more precisely malignant mesothelioma, is a rare form of cancer that develops from the protective lining that covers many of the body's internal organs, the mesothelium. It is usually caused by exposure to asbestos.
Its most common site is the pleura (outer lining of the lungs and internal chest wall), but it may also occur in the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity), the heart, the pericardium (a sac that surrounds the heart) or tunica vaginalis.

Symptoms of Mesothelioma

• Shortness of breath due to pleural effusion (fluid between the lung and the chest wall)

• Chest wall pain
• Weight loss

Mesothelioma that affects the pleura can cause these signs and symptoms:

• Chest wall pain
• Pleural effusion, or fluid surrounding the lung
• Shortness of breath
• Fatigue or anemia
• Wheezing, hoarseness, or cough
• Blood in the sputum (fluid) coughed up (hemoptysis)

In severe cases, the person may have many tumor masses. The individual may develop a pneumothorax, or collapse of the lung. The disease may metastasize, or spread, to other parts of the body. Tumors that affect the abdominal cavity often do not cause symptoms until they are at a late stage. Symptoms include:

• Abdominal pain
• Ascites or an abnormal buildup of fluid in the abdomen
• A mass in the abdomen
• Problems with bowel function
• Weight loss

In severe cases of the disease, the following signs and symptoms may be present:

• Blood clots in the veins, which may cause thrombophlebitis
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation disorder causing severe bleeding in many body organs
• Jaundice or yellowing of the eyes and skin
• Low blood sugar level
• Pleural effusion
• Pulmonary emboli, or blood clots in the arteries of the lungs
• Severe ascites

A mesothelioma does not usually spread to the bone, brain, or adrenal glands. Pleural tumors are usually found only on one side of the lungs.

Causes Of Mesothelioma

• Mesothelioma is caused by asbestos exposure which occurs when fibers are inhaled or ingested into the body and become lodged in body cavities, causing inflammation or infection. Asbestos is a naturally-occurring fibrous substance that was widely used in the 20th century in a number of different industries. When the public became aware of the hazards associated with the mineral, warnings were issued in the mid-1970s and use of the product began to decline.
  More than 30 percent of those diagnosed with mesothelioma are  veterans. Please visit the page on asbestos for additional information about the mineral.

Mesothelioma Types

There are five known types of mesothelioma. The four listed below are malignant  cancers, and benign mesothelioma is a non-cancerous condition.

Pleural Mesothelioma:

This type of  mesothelioma develops in the lining of the lungs, known as the pleura. It is the most common form of malignant mesothelioma, with around 75 percent of cases being pleural in origin.
Peritoneal Mesothelioma:
Comprising approximately 20 percent of mesothelioma cases, this form of mesothelioma develops in the lining of the abdominal cavity, known as the peritoneal membrane.
Pericardial Mesothelioma:

This form of mesothelioma develops in the lining of the heart, known as the pericardium. Approximately 5 percent of all mesothelioma cases are pericardial.
Testicular Mesothelioma:
Testicular mesothelioma develops in the tunica vaginalis of the testicles and is the rarest form of the cancer.

SKIN CANCER

Skin cancer is a disease in which skin cells lose the ability to divide and grow normally. Healthy skin cells normally divide in an orderly way to replace dead cells and grow new skin. Abnormal cells can grow out of control and form a mass or 'tumor'. When abnormal cells originate in the skin, the mass is called a skin tumor.

A skin tumor is considered benign if it is limited to a few cell layers and does not invade surrounding tissues or organs. But if the tumor spreads to surrounding tissues it is considered malignant or cancerous.

Cancer cells crowd out and destroy nearby healthy cells forming growths called malignant tumors.

Most skin growths, however, are non-malignant, benign (not harmful) tumors.

• Some forms of skin cancer also metastasize. That is, they spread to other parts of the body and start new tumors.
• Skin cancer that spreads to vital organs like the brain or liver can be life threatening.

The skin, which is the human body's largest organ, has several functions. It prevents the body from losing water and other fluid, stores fat, cools the body when sweat evaporates, and makes vitamin D. The skin also protects the body from infection, light, and injury.

A tumor is considered benign (not cancerous) if it is limited to a few cell layers and does not invade surrounding tissues or organs. But if the tumor spreads - or has the potential to spread - to surrounding tissues or organs, it is considered malignant, or cancerous.

Cancer (malignant growths) occur when:

• Some cells in the body begin to multiply in an uncontrolled manner.
• The body's natural defenses, such as certain parts of the immune system, cannot stop uncontrolled cell division.
• These abnormal cells become greater and greater in number.

Symptoms Of Skin Cancer

The most common symptoms are:

1. A new growth on the skin.

2. A change in an existing skin growth.

3. A sore that does not heal.

Not all changes in the skin are symptoms of skin cancer. Most moles and other growths are harmless and do not need to be removed. Moles that are unattractive, or in areas where they are constantly irritated by clothing, can be removed by a doctor.

PROSTATE CANCER

The prostate is a small gland in the pelvis that's found only in men. It's located between the penis and the bladder and surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the penis.

The main function of the prostate is to help in the production of semen. The prostate produces a thick white fluid that is then liquefied by a special protein known as prostate-specific antigen (PSA). The fluid is then mixed with sperm, produced by the testicles, to create semen.

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men. It is responsible for 25% of newly diagnosed cases of cancer in England and Wales.

The chances of developing prostate cancer increase as you get older. Most cases develop in men aged 65 or older.

For reasons that are not understood, prostate cancer is more common in men who are of Afro-Caribbean or African descent and less common in men of Asian descent.

The causes of prostate cancer are largely unknown.

The outlook for prostate cancer is generally good despite it being relatively challenging to treat. This is because, unlike many other cancers, prostate cancer usually progresses very slowly. It can take up to 15 years for the cancer to spread from the prostate to other parts of the body (metastasis), typically the bones. In many cases, prostate cancer won't affect a man's natural life span.

Once the cancer has spread to the bones it can't be cured, and treatment is focused on prolonging life and relieving symptoms. Approximately 9,000 men die from prostate cancer every year in England and Wales.

People who are at higher risk include:

• African-American men
• Men who are older than 60
• Farmers
• Tire plant workers
• Painters
• Men who have been exposed to cadmium

Symptoms of prostate cancer

Symptoms of prostate cancer include:

• difficulty in starting to pass urine
• a weak, sometimes intermittent flow of urine
• dribbling of urine before and after urinating
• a frequent or urgent need to pass urine
• pain when passing urine
• rarely, blood in the urine
• erectile dysfunction

Causes of prostate cancer

The cause of prostate cancer isn't fully understood at present, but you are more likely to develop prostate cancer if:

• you're over 50
• you have close relatives who have had prostate cancer
• several women in your family have had breast cancer - you may have inherited a faulty gene which may increase your risk of prostate cancer
• you're African-Caribbean or African-American
• your diet is high in fat
• you're overweight

Diagnosis of prostate cancer

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing

The main test for prostate cancer is the PSA (prostate-specific antigen) test, which looks for raised levels of PSA in the blood. Prostate cancer increases the production of PSA, so the test may be able to detect prostate cancer in its early stages.

However, the test is problematic:

• Up to 20% of men who do have prostate cancer will not have a raised PSA level;
• Over 65% of men with a raised PSA level will not have cancer. PSA levels tend to rise in all men as they get older.

Digital rectal examination

The next step to confirming a diagnosis of prostate cancer is a digital rectal examination (DRE). This can be done by your GP.

During a DRE, your GP will insert a finger into your rectum (back passage). The rectum is close to your prostate gland, so your GP is able to check to see if the surface of the gland has changed. This will feel a little uncomfortable but it should not cause you pain.

Prostate cancer can cause the gland to become hard and bumpy. However, in some cases, the cancer causes no changes to the gland and a DRE may not be able to detect the cancer.

DRE is also useful in ruling out benign prostatic hyperplasia, as this causes the gland to feel firm and smooth.

Biopsy

Your GP will assess the risk of you possibly having prostate cancer based on a number of factors, including your PSA levels, the results of your DRE and associated risk factors such as age, family history and ethnic group. If it is felt that the risk is significant you will be referred to a hospital to discuss the options of further tests.

The most commonly used test is known as a transrectal ultrasound-guided biopsy (TRUS).

During a TRUS biopsy, an ultrasound scanner (a machine that uses sound waves to build up a picture of the inside of your body) is used to study your prostate. This also allows the doctor to guide a needle through your rectum which is then used to take small samples of tissue from your prostate (biopsy).

The procedure can be uncomfortable and sometimes painful. You may be given a local anaesthetic to minimize any discomfort. The biopsy may also cause complications such as bleeding and infection.

Although it is much more reliable than a PSA test, a biopsy may miss up to 20% of cancers. Therefore, you may need to undergo another biopsy if your symptoms persist, or your PSA level continues to rise.

Gleason score

The samples of tissue from the biopsy are then studied in a laboratory. If cancerous cells are found, they can be studied further to see how quickly the cancer will spread.

This is done by giving the samples a grade, known as a Gleason score. The lower the score, the less likely the cancer will spread.

• a Gleason score of 6 or less means the cancer is unlikely to spread,
• a Gleason score of 7 means that there is a moderate chance of the cancer spreading, and
• a Gleason score of 8 or above means that there is a significant chance that the cancer will spread.

Treatment of prostate cancer

Your treatment for prostate cancer will depend on a number of factors, such as your age and whether the cancer has spread, and if so, how far. There are various treatments available. Some can have serious side-effects so it's important to speak with your doctor who will advise you on the best treatment for you.

Active monitoring

Sometimes, particularly for slow-growing tumours, no treatment is the best course of action. This is often called active monitoring or watchful waiting. Your condition will be monitored closely with routine check-ups. Your doctor may start treatment if your tests show that the cancer is growing or causing symptoms.

Surgery

Surgery is a common treatment for prostate cancer. It's most suitable for otherwise healthy men (usually, those under 70) whose cancer hasn't spread beyond the prostate.

The most common technique is a radical prostatectomy. This is a major operation, which removes the whole of the prostate and some surrounding healthy tissue.

New surgical developments include keyhole surgery (a laparoscopic prostatectomy) where the prostate is removed through smaller incisions and robot-assisted surgery.

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy uses radiation to destroy cancer cells. Techniques for treating prostate cancer include conformal radiotherapy (CRT), high-resolution intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) and brachytherapy.

Hormone therapy

Hormone therapy blocks the action of the male sex hormone (testosterone) that helps cancer grow. This can slow the growth and spread of prostate tumours but won't kill the cancer cells.

Medical hormone therapies include goserelin (Zoladex) and bicalutamide (Casodex).

Alternatively, surgical hormone therapy involves removing your testicles, which permanently gets rid of the main source of testosterone. This operation is called an orchidectomy.

Chemotherapy

If hormone treatment stops working (hormone refractory cancer) your doctor may recommend chemotherapy. Drugs such as docetaxel (Taxotere) are used to destroy cancer cells.

Cryotherapy

This is surgery to freeze the prostate with liquid gas and kill cancer cells. This treatment may be used if you have a recurrent or refractory prostate cancer.

Ultrasound

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is a treatment given using a machine that gives off high frequency sound waves. This heats up the targeted cancer cells and destroys them.

PANCREATIC CANCER

Cancer is an uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that form tumours , damage normal tissue, and that may eventually metastasize (spread throughout the body). Most (95%) pancreatic cancers develop in the pancreatic ducts and sometimes develop in the enzyme-producing cells of the exocrine pancreas.Endocrine pancreatic tumors are usually less aggressive than exocrine tumors and are rarer. They may be benign tumors (those that do not metastasize, such as(insulinomas) or malignant (a group of cancers called islet cell cancers). They often are detected earlier than exocrine cancers because they tend to produce excessive amounts of the hormones insulin and glucagon.

Since the pancreas is deep in the body, tumors that develop cannot usually be seen or felt during a physical examination and by the time symptoms develop, the cancer has often spread throughout the pancreas and beyond. One exception to this is ampullary cancer, a cancer that forms where the pancreatic and bile duct empty into the duodenum. Since ampullary cancer often obstructs the flow of bile from the bile duct and causes jaundice, it has the potential of being detected earlier than most exocrine cancers.

Pancreatic cancer is a form of cancer that occurs and develops within the pancreas tissues when cancerous cells grow and divide abnormally, resulting in tumors. Pancreatic cancer often spreads rapidly and is difficult to diagnose in its early stages due to a lack of obvious symptoms which are more prevalent in other types of cancers. Unfortunately, these symptoms don't become noticable until the cancer is in an advanced stage.

Signs and Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer

The most common signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer are:

• Jaundice (the skin and eyes becomes yellow): Almost half of all patients with pancreatic cancer display this symptom. This symptom is caused by the accumulation of bilirubin in the tissue and blood. Bilirubin is a dark green-colored substance produced by the liver. Jaundice occurs when there is a blockage in the bile duct which prevents bile from reaching the intestine. Sometimes, jaundice is preceded by a darker color urine, (because the bilirubin is eliminated from the body through the urine).
• Constant or intermittent pain in the upper or middle abdomen and back: The pain can be caused by the tumor which spreads to the adjacent nerve network that surrounds the pancreas.
• Weight loss: Weight loss occurs when the cancer interferes with and restrains the normal food-processing function of the pancreas.
• Digestive problems: Pancreatic cancer affects the normal function of the pancreas, preventing pancreatic juice from being released into the intestine. For this reason, patients with pancreatic cancer find it difficult to digest fat foods.
• Gallbladder enlargement: Sometimes, the pancreatic cancer blocks the bile duct and causes the bile to accumulate in the gallbladder. This can make the cancer detected earlier due to the enlarged gallbladder which is easily detected during a physical examination or imaging test.
• Blood clots or fatty tissue abnormalities: In some cases, a sign of pancreatic cancer may be the development of a blood clot in a large vein or present itself as uneven texture of fat tissue right beneath the skin. This abnormal fat tissue mass is caused by the release of the pancreatic enzymes that digest fat foods.
• Loss of appetite
• Fatigue and exhaustion
• Depression

MEDICAL TESTS AND DIAGNOSIS
Unfortunately, there are no laboratory tests available for the early detection or diagnosis of pancreatic cancer. Diagnosis is usually made after the cancer has already spread, using imaging tests and biopsy.

Some diagnostic and imaging tests that may be used include:

• Computed tomography (CT) scan: useful for detecting pancreatic masses and checking for metastasized cancer
• Biopsy: used to confirm diagnosis of cancer, often in conjunction with CT scan
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): a test that uses a flexible scope inserted through the nose, stomach, and into the pancreas and may be used to introduce a dye for X-rays or to place a stent (a metal or plastic tube that can help keep a duct open and functioning)
• Transabdominal ultrasound
• Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP): a type of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) used to see the pancreas, its ducts, and the bile ducts more clearly, often used before or instead of ERCP
  

OVARIAN CANCER

A women's reproductive system has two ovaries, one on either side of the uterus. The ovaries, each about the size of an almond, produce eggs (ova) as well as the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. Eggs are fertilized by sperm from the male to produce offspring (children).

Ovarian cancer starts in the cells of the ovary or ovaries. The ovaries are two small, oval-shaped organs that lie deep in the pelvis on either side of the uterus (womb), close to the end of the Fallopian tubes. The ovaries are part of the female reproductive system.

Each month, in women of childbearing age, one of the ovaries releases an egg (ovum). This is called ovulation. The egg travels down the Fallopian tube to the uterus, where it may be fertilized by a sperm and develop into a fetus. If the egg is not fertilized, it is shed as part of your monthly period.

The ovaries also produce the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone help control reproduction and sexual development. As a woman ages and reaches menopause, the ovaries make less of these hormones and periods gradually stop.

There are three main types of ovarian cancer. For each type, the cancer starts in a different type of cell found in the ovaries.

• Epithelial cell cancer starts in the cells that cover the outer surface of the ovary.
• Germ cell tumours start in the egg cells within the ovary and generally occur in younger women. Germ cell cancer can even develop in children.
• Stromal tumours start in the connective tissue cells that hold the ovary together.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Ovarian cancer in its early stages often does not cause any symptoms at all. When symptoms do start, they are often vague and easily mistaken for more common illnesses.

Often these symptoms can be cause by other less serious health problems, not cancer. Testing is needed to make a diagnosis. 

Ovarian cancer, in its early stages, may cause:

• abdominal discomfort, pressure or pain
• abdominal swelling
• change in bowel habits
• feeling full after a light meal
• indigestion
• gas
• upset stomach
• feeling that the bowel has not completely emptied
• nausea
• fatigue
• pain in lower back or leg
• more frequent or urgent urination
• abnormal vaginal bleeding
• menstrual disorders
• pain during intercourse

If these symptoms increase in intensity or severity or last longer than 2 to 3 weeks, you should contact your doctor.

Treatment of ovarian cancer

Treatment depends on the type of ovarian cancer and how far it has spread.

Surgery

Almost all women with ovarian cancer will need surgery for the best chance of successful treatment. The extent of surgery depends on the type of cancer and how far it has spread. If it hasn't spread beyond the ovary, it may be possible to remove only the single affected ovary and fallopian tube.

If the cancer has already spread beyond the ovary, both ovaries and your womb, together with nearby lymph nodes and any surrounding tissues that the cancer may have spread to, need to be removed. This is called a total hysterectomy and oophrectomy.

Other types of surgery for more advanced ovarian cancer are used to remove, or 'debulk' as much of the tumour as possible.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses medicines to destroy cancer cells and can cause side-effects, including tiredness and feeling sick or vomiting. Your chemotherapy treatment will vary depending on the type of ovarian cancer you have. Chemotherapy is usually used to shrink ovarian tumours. However, if you have the rarer type of germ cell ovarian cancer, chemotherapy can sometimes cure the disease.

After surgery, most women with ovarian cancer will be offered chemotherapy to destroy any remaining cancer cells that were not removed by surgery or if there is a risk the cancer may return. Women with very early stage ovarian cancer don't usually need chemotherapy.

If ovarian cancer comes back (relapses), you may be treated with the same chemotherapy medicine or an alternative, depending on the timing of the relapse and whether the cancer has developed resistance to previous chemotherapy medicines.

Your doctor may give you information on clinical trials that are being run to test new treatments for ovarian cancer.

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy uses radiation to destroy cancer cells. However, it's not often used to treat ovarian cancer.

LUNG CANCER

Lung cancer is caused by uncontrolled growth and division of abnormal cells lining the breathing tubes (airways) and other lung regions. Many other cancers of the body may migrate to the lung, particularly breast cancer, colorectal cancer and prostate cancer. However, these "metastatic" cancers are not included under the term "lung cancer" since they do not originate in the lung.

Lung cancer is a disease caused by the rapid growth and division of cells that make up the lungs. Lung cancer is sometimes called "bronchogenic cancer,"or it may be described by its particular histologic type, that is the type of tissue that is diseased.

Under normal circumstances, lung cells reproduce in an orderly fashion to maintain tissue health and to repair injuries. However, when growth control is lost and cells divide too much and too fast, a cellular mass—or tumor—is formed. If the tumor is confined to a few cell layers (for example, surface cells) and it does not invade surrounding tissues or organs, it is considered benign. By contrast, if the tumor spreads to surrounding tissues or organs, it is considered malignant, or cancerous.

If cancerous cells break away from the original tumor, travel, and grow within other body parts—such as the brain, bone, liver, adrenal glands, the opposite lung, or lymph nodes of the chest or collarbone (clavicle) regions—the process is known as metastasis.

Types of Lung Cancer

There are 2 main types of lung cancer. Each type grows, spreads and is
treated differently.
• Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
This is the most common type of lung cancer. It grows and spreads
more slowly.
• Small Cell Lung Cancer
This type of lung cancer grows and spreads more quickly.

Symptoms of Disease
In many cases, the symptoms of lung cancer fail to appear until lung cancer has spread. Many of the symptoms of lung cancer are shared by other disease processes that may affect the body as well, making lung cancer detection difficult. The following symptoms and conditions may be present in those with lung cancer:

• Severe and persistent cough
• Presence of blood in sputum
• Chest, shoulder and back pain
• Chronic pneumonia or bronchitis
• Change in color and/or volume of sputum
• Shortness of breath
• Chronic fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss
• Loss of appetite
• Excessive bone and joint pain

Lung Cancer Diagnosis
Because lung cancer often goes unnoticed until the cancer has invaded other regions of the body, creating new techniques capable of detecting lung cancer early are a top priority of researchers. Currently, no reliable, cost-effective screening techniques have been approved for the early detection of lung cancer.

Diagnostic tests include the following:

• Chest radiograph (x-ray) is used to detect enlarged lymph nodes in the chest or a localized mass in the lungs.
• Computed tomography(CT or "CAT" scan) is a computer-assisted technique that produces cross-sectional images of the body.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI scan) is a diagnostic method in which hydrogen ions within the body (and/or specific body parts) are excited by exposure to a magnetic field. The resulting signals are processed by a computer to create an image of the chest to define the location and extent of lung involvement.
• Bronchoscopy is a visual examination of the windpipe and lung branches performed by a pulmonologist (respiratory disease specialist) using a flexible scope. Bronchoscopy may involve brushings (using a small, brush-like device to gather cells from the tissue lining the respiratory system), washings of the respiratory tissues for cell analysis, and biopsy (removal and examination of small amounts of tissue). If the bronchoscopy is still unrevealing, or "negative," a needle biopsy may be performed.
• Needle biopsy, with CT-guidance, may be performed on suspicious areas in the lungs or pleura. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) uses a slim, hollow needle that is attached to a syringe. The needle is inserted into the suspicious mass and it is pushed back and forth to free some cells, which are aspirated (drawn up) into the syringe and are smeared on a glass slide for analysis. Large needle, or core biopsy, uses a large-bore needle to obtain a tissue sample for analysis.
• Bone scan may also be performed to rule out suspicions of metastasis to the bones. Metastasis is the process wherein cancerous cells break away from the original tumor, travel, and grow within other body parts.

Additional blood tests may be performed to look for lung cancer "markers"—that is, elements in the blood that are associated with the presence of lung cancer. For example, lung cancer may be indicated by abnormalities in the following.

• PTH (parathyroid hormone)—Blood levels of PTH or PTH-related protein may help to distinguish lung cancer from cancer of the pleura or other diseases.
• CEA (carcinogenic antigen)—a cancer-specific immune system protein that is present in many adenocarcinomas, including lung adenocarcinoma. Increased preoperative levels of CEA usually suggest a poor prognosis. A CEA level greater than 50 may indicate advanced stage lung cancer and should discourage treatment by resection.
• CYFRA21-1 (cytokeratin fragment 19)—a protein marker of lung cancer.

Lung Cancer Treatment

Treatment for lung cancer depends upon a variety of factors. The most important factors are the histopathologic (diseased tissue) type of lung cancer and the stage of the cancer.

Surgery
Surgery is considered the first line of treatment for localized non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and lung carcinoid tumors. The more aggressive the spread of cancer in the lungs, the more aggressive the surgery to remove cancer will be.

• Segmentectomy: removal of cancer and a small portion of surrounding lung tissue
• Lobectomy: removal of an entire lobe of lung
• Pneumonectomy: removal of the entire lung

Surgery for lung cancer may be conducted using a variety of techniques. Thoracotomy, which is performed throught the chest wall, and median sternotomy, which is performed by cutting through the breastbone, are standard methods used for lung cancer surgery.

Alternative approaches include anterior limited thoractomy (ALT), which is performed on the frontal chest using a small incision; anterioraxillary thoracotomy (AAT), which is performed on the frontal chest near the underarm; and posterolateral thoracotomy (PLT), which is performed on the back/side region of the trunk.

Surgery is rarely used in the treatment of small cell lung cancer because of its rapid spread to surrounding tissues and lymph nodes. If, however, SCLC is caught before it spreads, surgery may be used.

Radiation
Radiation therapy fights cancer by damaging cancer cells with a powerful beam of energy typically used in combination with anti-cancer drugs and/or surgery to clear any residual cancer that has not been destroyed by other methods.

• External beam radiation: radiation from outside source is directed at location of tumors and surrounding lymph nodes
  • While radiation oncologists direct the radiation at the cancer cells, some surrounding normal tissue may also be harmed by the therapy, and therefore, the dose of radiation is closely monitored by the oncologist.
• Brachytherapy: internal radiation from radioactive source (usually radioactive "seeds" or pellets) planted into lung tissue near cancer; often used in combination with external beam radiation

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy, or medical anti-cancer drug treatment, attempts to halt uncontrolled cell division of cancer by destroying all rapidly dividing cells. Different chemotherapy drugs will be prescribed based upon the type and stage of lung cancer. Chemotherapy can be used as the first defense against lung cancer, in combination with radiation (chemoradiation) or as a follow-up to surgery (adjuvant chemotherapy).

• Although chemotherapy techniques wipe out cancer cells, many normal, rapidly dividing healthy cells are also killed by these treatments. The death of healthy cells causes undesirable side effects for cancer patients such as hair loss, mouth sores, nausea, impaired resistance to infection, bruising and more.
• To lessen the harmful side effects caused by chemotherapy, researchers are working to develop ways to tailor anti-cancer drugs that specifically target cancer cells and interfere with the chemical processes that promote cancer growth.

Radiosurgery, also called stereotactic radiosurgery or radiation surgery, is a type of external radiation therapy that may be used to treat inoperable lung cancer. In this treatment, a single large dose of radiation is administered precisely to the tumor, causing little damage to healthy tissue. In spite of its name, stereotactic radiosurgery is not a surgical procedure. The CyberKnife® System is a type of radiosurgery that may be used in patients who have lung cancer.Lung Cancer chemotherapy drugs

• Cisplatin (Platinol®)
• Carboplatin (Paraplatin®)
• Paclitaxel (Taxol®)
• Docetaxel (Taxotere®)
• Gemcitabine (Gemzar®)
• Vinorelbine (Novelbine®)
• Irinotecan (Camptosar®)
• Etoposide
• Vinblastine

Additional drugs used in combination with chemotherapy:

• Targeted drug therapy that blocks the ability of cancer cells to grow by targeting a mutated protein within the cancer cell
  • Erlotinib (Tarceva®) - tyrosine kinase inhibitor that blocks the activity of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)
• Angiogenesis inhibitors: drugs that prevent tumors from accessing blood vessels, shutting tumors off from accessing nutrients and oxygen
  • Bevacizumab (Avastin®): blocks vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF), a protein that helps tumors to build blood vessels

COLON CANCER

Colon, or colorectal, cancer is cancer that starts in the large intestine (colon) or the rectum (end of the colon).
Other types of cancer can affect the colon, such as lymphoma, carcinoid tumors,melanoma, and sarcomas. These are rare. In this article, use of the term "colon cancer" refers to colon carcinoma only.

Colon cancer is cancer that occurs in the cells of the colon.

Colon Cancer Symptoms

It is common to have colon or rectal cancer without symptoms. Many patients are free of symptoms until their tumors are quite advanced.

Symptoms associated with colorectal cancer include may also be caused by other conditions. These symptoms include:

• Changes in bowel movements, such as diarrhea or constipation, or change in consistency of stools
• Feeling that the bowel has not emptied completely after a bowel movement
• Abdominal discomfort such as gas, bloating, and cramps
• Rectal bleeding or blood in stool
• Unexplained weight loss
• Unexplained iron-deficiency anemia (low red blood cell count)
• Weakness and fatigue

Diagnosis

• Barium enema, also known as a lower gastrointestinal series, takes X-rays of the large intestines.
  
• Biopsy is a test in which a small amount of tissue from the suspected area is removed for examination by a pathologist to make a diagnosis.
  
• Colonoscopy is performed to see inside the rectum and the entire colon and remove polyps or other abnormal tissue for examination under a microscope. In addition to the standard colonoscopy, UCSF Medical Center offers a virtual colonoscopy.
  
• Digital rectal exam involves the doctor or nurse inserting a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum to feel for any abnormalities.
  
• Fecal occult blood test is a test for blood in the stool. Such blood may arise from anywhere along the digestive tract. Hidden blood in the stool is often the first, and in many cases the only, warning sign that a person has colorectal disease, including colon cancer.
  
• Polypectomy is performed during a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy to remove polyps.
  
• Sigmoidoscopy is performed to see inside the rectum and the lower colon and remove polyps or other abnormal tissue for examination under a microscope.
  

BREAST CANCER TREATMENT

In recent years, there's been an explosion of life-saving treatment advances against breast cancer, bringing new hope and excitement. Instead of only one or two options, today there's an overwhelming menu of treatment choices that fight the complex mix of cells in each individual cancer. The decisions — surgery, then perhaps radiation, hormonal (anti-estrogen) therapy, and/or chemotherapy — can feel overwhelming.

• Surgery

Surgery is the most common treatment for breast cancer. There are several types of surgery.
Breast-sparing surgery: An operation to remove the cancer but not the breast is breast-sparing surgery. It is also called breast-conserving surgery, lumpectomy, segmental mastectomy, and partial mastectomy. Sometimes an excisional biopsy serves as a lumpectomy because the surgeon removes the whole lump.

The surgeon often removes the underarm lymph nodes as well. A separate incision is made. This procedure is called an axillary lymph node dissection. It shows whether cancer cells have entered the lymphatic system.

After breast-sparing surgery, most women receive radiation therapy to the breast. This treatment destroys cancer cells that may remain in the breast.

Mastectomy: An operation to remove the breast (or as much of the breast tissue as possible) is a mastectomy. In most cases, the surgeon also removes lymph nodes under the arm. Some women have radiation therapy after surgery.

• Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. Most women receive radiation therapy after breast-sparing surgery. Some women receive radiation therapy after a mastectomy. Treatment depends on the size of the tumor and other factors. The radiation destroys breast cancer cells that may remain in the area.

Some women have radiation therapy before surgery to destroy cancer cells and shrink the tumor. Doctors use this approach when the tumor is large or may be hard to remove. Some women also have chemotherapy or hormone therapy before surgery.

Doctors use two types of radiation therapy to treat breast cancer. Some women receive both types:

• External radiation: The radiation comes from a large machine outside the body. Most women go to a hospital or clinic for treatment. Treatments are usually 5 days a week for several weeks.
• Internal radiation (implant radiation): Thin plastic tubes (implants) that hold a radioactive substance are put directly in the breast. The implants stay in place for several days. A woman stays in the hospital while she has implants. Doctors remove the implants before she goes home.

Side effects depend mainly on the dose and type of radiation and the part of your body that is treated.

It is common for the skin in the treated area to become red, dry, tender, and itchy. Your breast may feel heavy and tight. These problems will go away over time. Toward the end of treatment, your skin may become moist and "weepy." Exposing this area to air as much as possible can help the skin heal.

Bras and some other types of clothing may rub your skin and cause soreness. You may want to wear loose-fitting cotton clothes during this time. Gentle skin care also is important. You should check with your doctor before using any deodorants, lotions, or creams on the treated area. These effects of radiation therapy on the skin will go away. The area gradually heals once treatment is over. However, there may be a lasting change in the color of your skin.

• Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy for breast cancer is usually a combination of drugs. The drugs may be given as a pill or by injection into a vein (IV). Either way, the drugs enter the bloodstream and travel throughout the body.

Women with breast cancer can have chemotherapy in an outpatient part of the hospital, at the doctor's office, or at home. Some women need to stay in the hospital during treatment.

Side effects depend mainly on the specific drugs and the dose. The drugs affect cancer cells and other cells that divide rapidly:

• Blood cells: These cells fight infection, help your blood to clot, and carry oxygen to all parts of the body. When drugs affect your blood cells, you are more likely to get infections, bruise or bleed easily, and feel very weak and tired. Years after chemotherapy, some women have developed leukemia (cancer of the blood cells).
• Cells in hair roots: Chemotherapy can cause hair loss . Your hair will grow back, but it may be somewhat different in color and texture.
• Cells that line the digestive tract: Chemotherapy can cause poor appetite, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, or mouth and lip sores.

• Hormone Therapy

• 
  
• Some breast tumors need hormones to grow. Hormone therapy keeps cancer cells from getting or using the natural hormones they need. These hormones are estrogen and progesterone. Lab tests can show if a breast tumor has hormone receptors. If you have this kind of tumor, you may have hormone therapy.
• This treatment uses drugs or surgery:

The side effects of hormone therapy depend largely on the specific drug or type of treatment. Tamoxifen is the most common hormone treatment. In general, the side effects of tamoxifen are similar to some of the symptoms of menopause. The most common are hot flashes and vaginal discharge. Other side effects are irregular menstrual periods, headaches ,fatigue, nausea, vomiting, vaginal dryness or itching , irritation of the skin around the vagina, and skin rash. Not all women who take tamoxifen have side effects.

• Biological therapy

Biological therapy helps the immune system fight cancer. The immune system is the body's natural defense against disease.

Some women with breast cancer that has spread receive a biological therapy called Herceptin(trastuzumab). It is a monoclonal antibody. It is made in the laboratory and binds to cancer cells.

Herceptin is given to women whose lab tests show that a breast tumor has too much of a specific protein known as HER2. By blocking HER2, it can slow or stop the growth of the cancer cells.

Herceptin is given by vein. It may be given alone or with chemotherapy.

Follow-up testing

Once a patient has been treated for breast cancer, she needs to be closely followed for a recurrence. At first, you will have follow-up visits every 3-4 months. The longer you are free of disease, the less often you will have to go for checkups. After 5 years, you could see your doctor once a year. You should have a mammogram of the treated and untreated breasts every year. Because having had breast cancer is a risk factor for getting it again, having your mammograms done every year is extremely important. If you are taking Tamoxifen, it is important that you get a pelvic exam each year and report any abnormal vaginal bleeding to your doctor.

Clinical trials are extremely important in furthering our knowledge of this disease. It is though clinical trials that we know what we do today, and many exciting new therapies are currently being tested. Talk to your doctor about participating in clinical trials in your area.

BREAST CANCER

Collections of cells that are growing abnormally or without control are called tumors. Tumors that do not have the ability to spread throughout the body may be referred to as “benign” and are not thought of as cancerous. Tumors that have the ability to grow into other tissues or spread to distant parts of the body are referred to as “malignant.” Malignant tumors within the breast are called “breast cancer”. Theoretically, any of the types of tissue in the breast can form a cancer, cancer cells are most likely to develop from either the ducts or the glands. These tumors may be referred to as “invasive ductal carcinoma” (cancer cells developing from ducts), or “invasive lobular carcinoma” (cancer cells developing from lobes).

Sometimes, precancerous cells may be found within breast tissue, and are referred to as ductal carcinoma in-situ (DCIS) or lobular carcinoma in-situ (LCIS). DCIS and LCIS are diseases in which cancerous cells are present within breast tissue, but are not able to spread or invade other tissues. DCIS represents about 20% of all breast cancers. Because DCIS cells may become capable of invading breast tissue, treatment for DCIS is usually recommended. In contrast, treatment is usually not needed for LCIS.

Types of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or in some cases, the tissue in between. In this section, you can learn about the different types of breast cancer, including non-invasive, invasive, recurrent, and metastatic breast cancers.

• DCIS – Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
• LCIS – Lobular Carcinoma In Situ
• IDC – Invasive Ductal Carcinoma
• Less Common Subtypes of Invasive Ductal Carcinoma
• ILC – Invasive Lobular Carcinoma
• Paget's Disease of the Nipple
• Inflammatory Breast Cancer
• Male Breast Cancer
• Recurrent and Metastatic Breast Cancer

Am I at risk for breast cancer?

The most important risk factor for development of breast cancer is increasing age. As any woman ages, her risk of breast cancer increases. Risk is also affected by the age when a woman begins menstruating (younger age may increase risk), and her age at her first pregnancy(older age may increase risk). Use of exogenous estrogens, sometimes in the form of hormone replacement treatment (HRT) may increase breast cancer risk, but use of oral contraceptives most likely does not increase risk. Family history is very important in determining breast cancer risk. Any woman with a family history of breast cancer will be at increased risk for developing breast cancer herself. Furthermore, known genetic mutations that increase risk of breast cancer are present in some families; these include mutations in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Between 3% to 10% of breast cancers may be related to changes in one of the BRCA genes. Women can inherit these mutations from their parents.. Genetic testing for mutations should be considered for any woman with a strong family history of breast cancer, especially breast cancers in family members less than 50 years, or strong family history of prostate or ovarian cancer. If a woman is found to carry either mutation, she has a 50% chance of getting breast cancer before she is 70. Family members may elect to get tested to see if they carry the mutation as well. If a woman does have the mutation, she may choose to undergo more rigorous screening or even undergo preventive (prophylactic) mastectomies to decrease her chances of contracting cancer. The decision to undergo genetic testing is a highly personal one that should be discussed with a doctor who is trained in counseling patients about genetic testing.

Symptoms Of Breast Cancer

Common symptoms of breast cancer include:

• A change in how the breast or nipple feels
• A Lump or thickening in or near the breast or in the underarm area
• Nipple Tenderness
• A change in how the breast or nipple looks
• A change in the size or shape of the breast
• A nipple turned inward into the breast
• The skin of the breast, areola, or nipple may be scaly, red, or swollen. It may have ridges or pitting so that it looks like the skin of an orange.
• Nipple Discharge(fluid)

Chemotherapy

chemotherapy is the systemic treatment of cancer with chemical i.e. drugs. Here the use of antineoplastic drugs to promote tumour cells destruction by interfering with cellular function and reproduction. It includes the use of various therapeutic agents and hormones.
The goal of chemotherapy is to destroy as many tumour cells as possible with minimal effect on healthy cells. It can be used for cure, control and palliation. The objective of the chemotherapy is to reduce the number of cancer cells present in the primary tumour site(s) and metastatic tumour site(s). Several factors will determine the response of cancer cells to chemotherapy are

1. Mitotrio rate of the tissue from which the tumour arises. The more rapid the mitotic rate, the greater response to chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice for acute leukaemia, choriocarcinoma of the placenta, wilms' tumour and neuroblastoma.

2. Size Of Tumour: The smaller the number of cancer cells, the greater the response to chemotherapy.

3. Age Of The Tumour: The younger tumour, the greater the response to chemotherapy.

4. Location Of The Tumour: Certain anatomic sites provide a protected environments from the effects of chemotherapy.

5. Presence Of Resistant Tumour Cells: Mutation of cancer cells within the tumour mass can result in varient cells that are resistant to chemotherapy.

6.  Physiologic and Psychologic Status of the Host: A state of optimum health and positive attitude will allow better withstand aggressive chemotherapy.

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC DRUGS

1.  Alklating agent
2.   Antimetabolites
3.   Antitumour Antibiotics
4.   Hormonal Agents
5.   Vinca Alkaloids
6.   Epipodophyllotoxins
ADMINISTRATION OF CHEMOTHERAPY
chemotherapy can be administered by several routes

• Oral
• Intramuscular 
• Intravenous
• Intracavitary
• Intraarterial
• Perfusion
• Continuous Infusion
• Subcutaneous
• Topical
• Intraperitoneal